Church Councils: An Overview
Many people within Christianity have a limited understanding of church councils. They often recognize the resulting creeds but may not fully comprehend where these beliefs were formalized and the reasons behind them. Following the recent visit of Pope Leo XIV, which included significant events in Ankara, Istanbul and Nicaea, I wanted to share some insights from my notes.
Pope Leo XIV’s three-day visit to Turkey included a symbolic journey that began with a visit to Anıtkabir, the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, followed by a meeting with President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. In the evening, a program was held at the National Library. The Pope also engaged with both Catholic clergy and Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew in Istanbul. A special service took place in Nicaea to commemorate the anniversary of the First Council of Nicaea, after which the Pope concluded his visit in Istanbul and departed for Beirut.
Understanding the significance of the early church councils is essential for Christians. These gatherings shaped fundamental doctrines that continue to influence the faith today. In this post, I aim to provide information about the Seven Ecumenical Councils of the Early Church as well as insights into the role of apostles and church fathers in the province of Asia. Additionally, I will explore church theology during the 4th to 6th centuries, particularly focusing on Christology.
Let’s dive deeper into these significant historical events and their lasting impact on Christianity.
Gürkan Adalı – Oktogon Travel
The 7 Ecumenical Councils of the Early Church
- Nicaea (325)
The Arian controversy (Christology).
The Nicene Creed: the Son is of the same essence as the Father. - Constantinople (381)
The Nicene Creed was confirmed and finally formulated – our “Nicene Creed.” - Ephesus (431)
The relationship between Jesus as true God and true man.
The doctrine of Mary as Theotokos (“God-bearer”). - Chalcedon (451)
Moderate dyophysite doctrine: the mystery of the Incarnation – Christ is God and man in one and the same person. - Constantinople (553)
Clarification of the Chalcedonian confession and rejection of certain Antiochene–Nestorian teachings (the “Three Chapters”). - Constantinople (680/681)
Resolution of the “monothelite” Christology (the view that Christ had only one divine will and no human will). - Nicaea (787)
Provisional conclusion of the Iconoclastic Controversy: “He who venerates the image (icon) venerates the one depicted.” The “theology of images.”
Apostles and Church Fathers in the Province of Asia
Ephesus: The Apostle Paul
In Ephesus 51/52 and 53–55 AD.
Acts 18:19–21; Acts 19; 20:16f.
Ephesus: The Apostle John
In Ephesus ca. 70 (?) – 100 AD.
“The apostle and evangelist John was still alive and had responsibility for the churches in Asia. After the death of Domitian (96 AD), he returned from exile on the island of Patmos.”
(Eusebius, Church History III, 23)
“The church in Ephesus is a reliable foundation for the teaching of the apostles. It was founded by Paul, and the apostle John lived there until the time of Trajan (emperor from 98 AD). He was buried in Ephesus.”
(Irenaeus, Against Heresies III, 3, 4 / Eusebius, Church History V, 24, 3)
Smyrna: Bishop Polycarp
Ca. 69 – 155/156. A disciple of John.
“Polycarp was not only a disciple of the apostles but had associated with many who had seen the Lord.”
Hierapolis: Bishop Papias
Ca. 60/70 – 140/150. A disciple of John and a “colleague” of Polycarp.
“During Polycarp’s time, Papias served as bishop of Hierapolis.”
(Eusebius, Church History III, 15, 2)
“Papias was a hearer of John and a companion of Polycarp, a man of ancient times. He wrote five books.”
(Irenaeus, Against Heresies V, 34, 4)
Sardis: Bishop Melito
Died ca. 190. Highly esteemed as an apologist and prophetic preacher. His sermon On Pascha, from around 175, is the oldest preserved Easter homily (the complete text was rediscovered in 1940).
Smyrna / Lyon: Bishop Irenaeus
Ca. 130 (?) – ca. 200. A disciple of Polycarp in Smyrna who later moved to Lyon (southern France). Bishop of Lyon from 177/178.
“I remember events from my youth better than those of recent times (…). I can even describe the place where the blessed Polycarp sat and spoke, how he went in and out, his way of life, his appearance, his speech to the people, how he spoke of his association with John and with others who had seen the Lord, how he recalled what they had said and what he had heard from them about the Lord, about His mighty works and His teaching. Polycarp received this from eyewitnesses of the Word of Life and recounted everything in accordance with Scripture. I listened attentively and wrote it down, not on paper, but in my heart.”
(Irenaeus, Letter to Florinus in Rome)
Church and Theology in the 4th–6th Centuries (Christology)
The Arian Controversy
- 318 – Synod of Alexandria: Arius (presbyter in Alexandria) is excommunicated.
- 325 – Council of Nicaea.
- 328 – Athanasius becomes bishop of Alexandria.
- 335–337 – Athanasius deposed and exiled from Alexandria.
- 361–363 – Emperor Julian the Apostate.
- 380 – Emperor Theodosius I makes Christianity the state religion.
- 381 – Council of Constantinople (150 bishops present). The 2nd Ecumenical Council.
The Nestorian Controversy
- 428 – Nestorius of Antioch becomes patriarch of Constantinople.
- 429 – Cyril of Alexandria attacks Nestorius.
- 431 – Council of Ephesus: Nestorius is condemned. The 3rd Ecumenical Council.
- 433 – Compromise document drawn up (“Formula of Union”).
- 435 – Nestorius exiled to Egypt.
The Eutychian Controversy
- 448 – Eutyches (monk and presbyter in Constantinople) condemned (μία φύσις).
- 449 – The “Robber Synod” of Ephesus: Dioscorus of Alexandria declares Eutyches orthodox.
- 451 – Council of Chalcedon (moderate two-nature doctrine). The 4th Ecumenical Council.
The “Three Chapters” Controversy
- 482 – Imperial prohibition against further disputes; clarification of the Chalcedonian formula (monophysite tendency in the “Henotikon”).
- 484–519 – Schism between East and West due to disagreement over Chalcedon (many Eastern churches considered it “too Western”).
- 553 – Council of Constantinople: clarification of Chalcedon and condemnation of Antiochene–Nestorian teachings (the “Three Chapters”). The 5th Ecumenical Council.
The “Monergist” and “Monothelite” Controversies
- 638 – Decree of Emperor Heraclius.
- 648 – Emperor Constans II forbids disputes over monergism/monothelitism.
- 662 – Maximus the Confessor suffers martyrdom.
- 680–681 – Council of Constantinople: final condemnation of monothelitism. The 6th Ecumenical Council.
The Eastern Churches and Dioceses
“The Eastern churches dominated numerically at the Council of Nicaea in 325. From Italy there were two representatives; from Spain only one.”